Knowledge Center Blogs

The Foundations of Disinformation and Misinformation

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The term Information disorder was coined by researcher Dr. Claire Wardle to describe the broad societal challenges associated with misinformation and disinformation, generally on the digital landscape, that contribute to the pollution of our evolving information ecosystem. Misinformation is the unintentional spread of false or misleading information, shared by mistake, or under a presumption of truth.  Disinformation — false or misleading information that is deliberately spread with an intent to cause harm or damage —  is neither new nor unique to the modern day.

From Octavian’s propaganda campaign against Antony in Ancient Rome to ‘The Great Moon Hoax’ of 1835, disinformation has been a favored weapon of politicians, civic leaders and mischief makers around the world. Yet the rise of the internet and the exponential growth of social media use across cultures and communities has dramatically increased the speed and impact of false narratives. The tactics behind disinformation vary widely and further complicates our understanding around source motivation and intention. Knowing how it’s done is just as important when trying to understand why.

Selected Experts on the Topic

  • danah boyd, partner researcher at Microsoft Research, founder and president of Data & Society Research Institute, @zephoria
  • Renee DiResta, technical research manager at Stanford Internet Observatory, @noUpside
  • Kolina Koltai, postdoctoral researcher at the Center for an Informed Public at the University of Washington, @KolinaKoltai
  • Meghna Mahadevan, disinformation defense strategist with United We Dream
  • Thomas Rid, professor of Strategic Studies, Johns Hopkins University, @RidT
  • Claire Wardle, co-founder of First Draft, @cward1e

Reading Resources

Regulation Models from Other Parts of the World

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Efforts by various European countries to address distrust and disinformation vary across the continent. Regulating big technology companies and social media platforms is an approach the U.S. has yet to effectively take, presenting opportunities for the American government to learn, adapt and act.

Selected Experts on the Topic

Reading Resources

First Amendment and Section 230

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Section 230 has become a political football in terms of platform accountability and responsibility regarding the spread of online mis and disinformation. “One highly influential piece of misinformation is that the tech industry is biased against conservative figures and conservative content,” shared Dr. Mary Anne Franks, president of the Cyber Civil Rights Initiative as part of a question for Facebook, Twitter and Google CEOs. “Conservative figures and content actually perform very well on social media sites such as Facebook, even though they disproportionately violate companies’ policies against misinformation and other abuse.” With members of Congress introducing the SAFE TECH Act to address Section 230 concerns, questions are being raised about how this could affect rights protected by the First Amendment.

Selected Experts on the Topic

  • Dr. Mary Anne Franks, President of the Cyber Civil Rights Initiative and Professor of Law at the University of Miami, @ma_franks
  • Eric Goldman, internet law professor, Santa Clara University Law School, @ericgoldman
  • Jeff Kosseff, assistant professor of cybersecurity law at the United States Naval Academy, author of The Twenty-Six Words That Created the Internet.” @jkosseff
  • Mike Masnick, founder and CEO of the Copia Institute, @mmasnick

Reading Resources

Cognitive Science and Behavioral Economics

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Social media may have provided a space for mis and disinformation to spread, but questions around why people believe and share false content and how they became radicalized must be addressed as well. What roles do cognitive biases and mental shortcuts, as described by behavioral economics, and the development of algorithms affect or even degrade our information ecosystem?

Selected Experts on the Topic

  • Meredith Broussard, research director at the NYU Alliance for Public Interest Technology, @merbroussard
  • Panayiota (Pani) Kendeou, Educational Psychology, co-author of the Debunking Handbook, @Kendeou
  • Eric Saund, Research scientist in Cognitive Science and AI (no Twitter)
  • Jason Stanley, philosophy, @jasonintrator

Reading Resources

Platform Response and Accountability

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Social media platforms and Big Tech play a pivotal role in both the spread and response to online mis and disinformation. Questions regarding transparency, responsibility and accountability have risen as independent researchers and technologists work to understand how to approach studying platform impact when data and access are restricted. Platform-led efforts, policies and research have been developed internally and with nonprofit organizations, but questions still remain over their effectiveness.

Selected Experts on the Topic

  • Emily Bell, founder, director, Tow Center for Digital Journalism at Columbia University, @Emilybell
  • Erin Gallagher, social media researcher, @3r1nG
  • Timnit Gebru, computer scientist and co-founder, Black in AI, @timnitGebru
  • Ifeoma Ozoma, Founder and Principal of Earthseed, @IfeomaOzoma
  • Nicol Turner Lee, Senior Fellow – Governance Studies, Director – Center for Technology Innovation, Brookings, @drturnerlee

Reading Resources

Intersection of Disinformation and Marginalized Communities

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Communities of color and other marginalized groups have consistently been disproportionately affected and targeted by mis and disinformation. According to a report by the Senate Intelligence Committee on Russian interference in 2016, “no single group of Americans was targeted by IRA information operatives more than African Americans. By far, race and related issues were the preferred target of the information warfare campaign designed to divide the country.”  In 2020, these tactics focused on suppressing voter turnout and spreading medical distrust in minority communities, creating societal harm and individual risk. Understanding the history of targeted disinformation campaigns is critical when trying to develop whole-of-society solutions.

Selected Experts on the Topic

Reading Resources

Cults, Conspiracy Theories and Thwarting Online Radicalization

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Mis- and disinformation has driven individuals to embrace fringe, radical views. Its roots go back decades as a cyclical relationship between public curiosity and the media and entertainment industry have led to the dramatization and amplification of cults and conspiracy theories. The advent of social media and tech platforms gave rise to algorithmic targeting and private online groups, driving people deeper into partisan camps and fabricated belief networks resulting in dangerous, disinfo-fueled events around the world.

Selected Experts on the Topic

  • Becca Lewis, Ph.D researcher at Stanford and Data and Society, @beccalew
  • Daniel Koehler, Research Fellow at the Polarization and Extremism Research and Innovation Lab at the “Center for University Excellence (CUE)” of American University (no Twitter)
  • Janja Lalich, Ph.D., a researcher, author, and educator specializing in cults and extremist groups
  • Sander van der Linden, Professor of Social Psychology in Society in the Department of Psychology at the University of Cambridge and Director of the Cambridge Social Decision-Making Lab, @Sander_vdLinden
  • Dr. Alexander Meleagrou-Hitchens, Research Director of the Program on Extremism at The George Washington University, @amhitchens
  • Peter Neumann, founding director, International Centre for the Study of Radicalisation (ICSR) at King’s College London, @PeterRNeumann
  • Travis View, QAnonymous podcast host, @travis_view

Reading Resources

Decline of Trust in Institutions

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A decline in trust in American institutions is both a contributing factor in and a victim of information disorder. In 2019, a Pew Research study showed that the public’s trust in both the federal government, news media, and in their personal circles have decreased. Prior to the pandemic, a majority of the respondents said they trusted medical doctors, researchers and scientists, but trust in scientists and medical researchers declined. In an essay published in 2020, Richard Edelman, CEO of the communications firm Edelman, said “every institution must play its part in restoring facts to their rightful place at the center of public discourse as the essential step to emerging from information bankruptcy.”

Selected Experts on the Topic

  • Martin Gurri, a former media analyst at the CIA, @mgurri
  • Richard Edelman, CEO of Edelman, Edelman Trust Index, @richardwedelman 
  • Rebecca Stavick, CEO, Community Information Trust, @RebeccaStavick
  • Ethan Zuckerman, UMass Amherst; former director of the MIT Center for Civic Media. Author of “How do we Regain Trust in Institutions?” @EthanZ

Reading Resources

Crisis in Local News and Media

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Local news, in crisis before the pandemic, is now facing a cataclysm. Ad revenue has been decimated and consolidation has driven record job cuts. Access to critical trustworthy information for millions of Americans is declining at alarming rates across the country. Into that void has entered partisan information sources, often riddles with falsehoods. Local reporters were unprepared to address the onslaught of misleading and false content that spread on social media and via word-of-mouth accounts on testing, masks and vaccines, complicating the information ecosystem even more.

Selected Experts on the Topic

Reading Resources

Political Polarization and Disinformation

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Social media has both evolved and complicated the information landscape. Algorithmic targeting and private groups  have driven us further into partisan camps and deepend mistrust into alternative viewpoints. Many legacy and digital media are operating in seemingly different realities, dependent more so on either political influence or audience demands. Disinformation campaigns, reaching a crescendo  in the last year  demonized officials at all levels of government and expanded into areas of public health. Americans were exposed to content that depicted  elected leaders and candidates as active dangers to their livelihoods and values, with January 6 a consequential outcome. This level of polarization is a critical fracture in the democratic fundamental of political discourse.

Selected Experts on the Topic

Reading Resources

Brands, the Commercial Sector and Disinformation

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Areas of concern regarding mis and disinformation are not limited to social media platforms and political discourse. Businesses, corporations and financial markets can be greatly affected by false or misleading information, intentional and otherwise. Whether it’s to manipulate stock prices, damage brand reputations or target consumer confidence, disinformation has become a dangerous tactic that marketing and public relations firms may not be prepared to effectively counter. It’s important to understand how brands, businesses and companies are currently being targeted and how they respond to attacks such as deepfakes on an organizational level.

Selected Experts on the Topic

  • Steven Brill, Co-CEO, NewsGuard
  • Michelle Ferrier, Executive Director at Media Innovation Collaboratory/Founder, Troll-Busters.com, @mediaghosts
  • Chris Perry, Global Chief Innovation Officer, Weber Shandwick, @cperry248
  • John Poulos, CEO, Dominion Voting Systems (lived experience expert)

Reading Resources

Nation-State Threats

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Nation-state actors have carried out influence operations during elections in both Europe and the United States. Even though tactics such as network operations, provocations and the coordinated spreading of disinformation have been revealed, this has not deterred the activity from Russia and China. Disinformation efforts have increased during the pandemic and concerns about future threats and targets have increased.

Selected Experts on the Topic

  • Anne Applebaum, Atlantic Staff writer, @anneapplebaum
  • Graham Brookie, director of the Atlantic Council’s Digital Forensic Research Lab (DFRLab), @GrahamBrookie
  • Ron Deibert, director of Citizen Lab (no Twitter)
  • Camille Francois, chief innovation officer, Graphika, @camillefrancois
  • John Kelly, CEO, Graphika, @apidictionist
  • Alicia Wanless, director of the Partnership for Countering Influence Operations, Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, @lageneralista
  • Clint Watts, senior fellow at the Center for Cyber and Homeland Security at George Washington University and a Foreign Policy Research Institute fellow, @selectedwisdom

Reading Resources

Emerging Disinformation Threats

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The Capitol siege by white nationalists, Trump supporters and militia groups on January 6 that was grown out of a social media-led disinformation campaign has revealed new concerns from internet experts, threat researchers and more. How will tactics evolve, what sites will bad actors migrate to and what types of digital technology will be used to disrupt society in the weeks, months and years to come?

Selected Experts on the Topic

  • Renee DiResta, technical research manager at Stanford Internet Observatory, @noUpside
  • Cameron Hickey, Program Director for Algorithmic Transparency, @cameronhickey
  • Siwei Lyu, SUNY Empire Innovation Professor (no Twitter)
  • Giorgio Patrini, CEO of Deeptrace Labs (no Twitter)
  • Deborah Raji, computer scientist in AI accountability, @rajiinio
  • Melissa Ryan, digital researcher on Alt-right for CARD Strategies, @MelissaRyan

Reading Resources

Civic Education and Media Literacy

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Increasing the public’s media literacy and civic educational understanding has been viewed as a critical solution to the mis and disinformation problem American society is facing. Studies by research institutions and programs by schools and libraries have reflected an increasing demand for civic engagement and digital media literacy, and hopes that it can push back against political polarization and online radicalization.

Selected Experts on the Topic

Reading Resources

Appendix

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Recommended readings and resources not shared as materials for commissioners but useful for all those interested in the work surrounding information disorder.

Digital Resources

Case Studies, Reports and Examples

Information Disorder Academics

  • Alice Marwick, Associate Professor of Communication and Principal Researcher at the Center for Information, Technology and Public Life, @alicetiara
  • Marc-André Argentino, Research Fellow, International Centre for the Study of Radicalisation, @_MAArgentino
  • Dean Freelon, Associate professor, UNC Hussman School of Journalism and Media, @dfreelon
  • Sam Wooley, Researcher and assistant professor with a focus on emerging media technologies and propaganda, UT-Austin, @samuelwoolley
  • Mutale NKonde, CEO, AI for the People, AI advisor to UN, @mutalenkonde
  • Brendan Nyhan, political science professor, Dartmouth, @BrendanNyhan
  • Lisa-Maria Neudert, Ph.D candidate, Oxford Commission on AI & Good Governance, @lmneudert
  • Irene Pasquetto, Assistant Professor at the University of Michigan School of Information, @IrenePasquetto

Information Disorder Researchers

  • Chloe Colliver, digital policy and research at Institute for Strategic Dialogue Global, @ChloeColliver2
  • Jiore Craig, Vice President and Director of the Digital Practice at GQR Research, @JioreC
  • Nina Jankowitz, disinformation fellow, The Wilson Center, @wiczipedia

Information Disorder Journalists

  • Maria Ressa, co-founder of Rappler, @mariaressa
  • Brandy Zadrozny, senior reporter, NBC News, @BrandyZadrozny
  • Davey Alba, reporter, The New York Times, @daveyalba
  • Jane Lytvynenko, senior reporter, Buzzfeed News, @JaneLytv
  • Ben Collins, senior reporter, NBC News, @oneunderscore__
  • Donie O’Sullivan, reporter, CNN, @donie
  • Shayan Sardarizadeh, journalist, BBC @Shayan86
  • Daniel Funke, staff writer, PolitiFact, @dpfunke
  • Will Sommer, Politics reporter, The Daily Beast, @willsommer
  • Kevin Roose, tech columnist, The New York Times, @kevinroose

Information Disorder in Tech

  • Ben Nimmo, Global IO Threat Intel Lead, Facebook, @benimmo
  • Alexios Mantzarlis, News and Information Credibility Lead, Google, @Mantzarlis

Information Disorder and Civics

  • Louise Dube, Executive Director, iCivics, @louise_dube
  • Peter Levine, Associate Dean for Research, The Jonathan M. Tisch College of Civic Life at Tufts University, @peterlevine
  • John King, fmr Education Secretary in the Obama Administration, @JohnBKing
  • Archon Fung, Citizenship and Self-Government, Harvard Kennedy School, @Arfung
  • Hahrie Han, political scientist at Johns Hopkins University and Inaugural Director of the SNF Agora Institute, @hahriehan